All UK tap water is chlorinated to prevent disease via water based pathogens.

These clinical studies show the harmful health effects from drinking chlorinated tap water, and demonstrate the need to purify tap water by using a good water filter to preserve ones health.

References

1 Committee on Toxicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment (2000). Chlorinated Drinking Water and Reproductive Outcomes. 1998 Annual Report of the Committees on Toxicity Mutagenicity Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment: pp 7-8. London: Department of Health

2 Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment (1993). Epidemiology of Chlorinated Drinking Water and Cancer. 1992 Annual Report of the Committees on Toxicity Mutagenicity Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment: pp 55-56 and Correction issued September 1993. London: HMSO

3 Committee on the Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment (2000). Drinking Water. 1999 Annual Report of the Committees on Toxicity Mutagenicity Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment: pp 59-61. London: Department of Health

4 Swan SH, Waller K, Hopkins B, Windham G, Fenster L, Schaefer C, Neutra RR (1998). A prospective study of spontaneous abortion: relation to amount and source of drinking water consumed in early pregnancy. Epidemiology ; 9: 126-133

5 Toledano MB, Nieuwenhuijsen M, Bennet J, Best N, Whitaker H, Cockings S, Fawell J, Jarup L, Briggs DJ, Elliott P (2001). Chlorination disinfection by products in relation to birthweight in three water areas in England (unpublished draft)

6 Waller K, Swan SH, DeLorenze G, Hopkins B (1998). Trihalomethanes in drinking water and spontaneous abortion. Epidemiology ; 9: 134-140

 

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Recent epidemiological studies

7 Dodds L, King W, Allen AC, Armson BA, Fell DB, Nimrod C (2004). Trihalomethanes in public water supplies and risk of stillbirth. Epidemiology ; 15: 179-186

8 Dodds L, King W, Woolcott C, Pole J (1999). Trihalomethanes in public water supplies and adverse birth outcomes. Epidemiology ; 3: 233-237

9 Fabiani L, Materazzo F, Ensabella F, Giuliani AR, Patacchiola F, Oleandri V, Leoni V (2003). [Low birth weight, life style of mothers during pregnancy and chlorinated drinking water]. Ann Ig ; 15: 933-43

10 Gallagher MD, Nuckols JR, Stallones L, Savitz DA. (1998). Exposure to trihalomethanes and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Epidemiology ; 9: 484-489

11 Jaakkola JJK, Magnus P, Skrondal A, Hwang B-F, Becher G, Dybing E (2001). Foetal growth and duration of gestation relative to water chlorination. Occup Environ Med ; 58: 437-442

12 Kallen BAJ, Robert E (2000). Drinking water chlorination and delivery outcome – a registry-based study in Sweden. Rep Tox; 14; 303-309

13 King WD, Dodds L, Allen AC (2000). Relation between stillbirth and specific chlorination by-products in public water supply. Env Health Perspec ; 108; 883-886

14 Righi E, Fantuzzi G, Montanari M, Bargellini A, Predieri G, Aggazzotti G (2003). [Exposure to water disinfection by-products and adverse pregnancy outcomes: results of a case-control study carried out in Modena (Italy).] Ann Ig ; 15: 649-62

15 Toledano MB, Nieuwenhuijsen M, Best N, Whitaker H, Hambly P, de Hoogh C, Fawell J, Jarup L, Elliott P (2004). Relation of trihalomethane concentrations in public water supplies to stillbirth and birth weight in three water regions in England. Env Health Perspec ; doi:10.1289/ehp.7111.
http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2004/7111/abstract.html

16 Waller K, Swan SH, Windham GC, Fenster L (2001). Influence of exposure assessment methods on risk estimates in an epidemiologic study of total trihalomethane exposure and spontaneous abortion. J Exp Anal and Env Epidem ; 11: 522-531

17 Wright JM, Schwartz J, Dockery DW (2003). Effect of trihalomethane exposure on fetal development. Occup Environ Med ; 60: 173-180

18 Wright JM, Schwartz J, Dockery DW (2004). The effect of disinfection by-products and mutagenic activity on birth weight and gestational duration.Env Health Perspec ; 112: 920-5

19 Yang CY (2004). Drinking water chlorination and adverse birth outcomes in Taiwan. Toxicology ; 198: 249-54

20 Yang C-Y, Cheng B-H, Tsai S-S, Wu T-N, Lin M-C, Lin K-C (2000). Association between chlorination of drinking water and adverse pregnancy outcome in Taiwan. Env Health Perspec ; 108; 765-768

 

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Recent papers on exposure and uptake

21 Backer LC, Ashley DL, Bonin MA, Cardinall FL, Kieszak SM, Wooten JV (2000). Household exposures to drinking water disinfection by-products: whole blood trihalomethane levels. J Exp Anal and Env Epidem ; 10: 321-326

22 Lynberg M, Nuckols JR, Langlois P, Ashley D, Singer P, Mendola P, Wilkes C, Krapfl H, Miles E, Speight V, Lin B, Small L, Miles A, Bonin M, Zeitz P, Tadkod A, Henry J, Forrester MB (2001). Assessing exposure to disinfection by-products in women of reproductive age living in Corpus Christi, Texas and Cobb County, Georgia: Descriptive results and methods. Envir Health Perspect ; 109: 597-604

23 Miles AM, Singer PC, Ashley DL, Lynberg MC, Mendola P, Langlois P, Nuckols JR (2002). Comparison of trihalomethanes in tap water and blood. Environ Sci Technol ; 36: 1692-1698

 

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Recent studies in laboratory animals

24 Bielmeier S, Best DS, Guidici DL, Narotsky MG (2001). Pregnancy loss in the rat caused by bromodichloromethane. Tox Sci ; 59: 309-315

25 Bielmeier S, Best DS, Narotsky MG (2004). Serum hormone characterisation and exogenous hormone rescue of bromodichloromethane-induced pregnancy loss in the F344 rat. Tox Sci ; 77: 101-108

26 Chen J, Douglas GC, Thirkill TL, Lohstroh PN, Bielmeier SR, Narotsky MG, Best DS, Harrison RA, Natarajan K, Pegram RA, Overstreet JW, Lasley BL, (2003) Effect of bromodichloromethane on chorionic gonadotrophin secretion by human placental trophoblast cultures. Tox Sci ; 76: 75-82

27 Chen J, Thirkill TL, Lohstroh PN, Bielmeier SR, Narotsky MG, Best DS, Harrison RA, Natarajan K, Pegram RA, Overstreet JW, Lasley BL, Douglas GC (2004). Bromodichloromethane inhibits human placental trophoblast differentiation. Tox Sci ; 78: 166-174

28 Christian MS, York RG, Hoberman AM, Diener RM, Fisher LC, Gates GA (2001a). Biodisposition of dibromoacetic acid (DBA) and bromodichloromethane (BDCM) administered to rats and rabbits in drinking water during range-finding reproduction and developmental toxicity studies. Int J Toxicol ; 20: 239-253

29 Christian MS, York RG, Hoberman AM, Diener RM, Fisher LC (2001b). Oral (drinking water) developmental toxicity studies of bromodichloromethane (BDCM) in rats and rabbits. Int J Toxicol ; 20: 225-237

30 Christian MS, York RG, Hoberman AM, Fisher LC, Ray Brown W (2002) Oral (drinking water) two-generation reproductive toxicity study of bromodichloromethane (BDCM) in rats. Int J Toxicol ; 21: 115-146

 

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Recent review papers

31 Bove F, Shim Y, Zeitz P (2002). Drinking water contaminants and adverse pregnancy outcomes: A review. Env Health Perspec ; 110 (Suppl 1): 61-74

32 Graves CG, Matanoski GM Tardiff RG (2001). Weight of evidence for an association between adverse reproductive and developmental effects and exposure to disinfection by-products: A critical review. Reg Tox and Pharm ; 34: 103-124

33 Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Toledano MB, Eaton NE, Fawell J, Elliott P (2000).
Chlorination disinfection by-products in water and their association with adverse reproductive outcomes. Occup Environ Med ; 57: 73-85